switching frequency vs fundamental frequency

- Hearth Jan 24, 2019 at 21:03 Given that quasi-peak detection is implemented using a 120kHz resolution bandwidth in the analyzer, excepting the fundamental switching frequency and the first few harmonics, the switching energy will be present only part of the time at any single center frequency. The frequency of will be equal to the switching frequency fs. For this application, running at 50kW @ 10000rpm, using a 4khz switching frequency, the THD(I) = 12.69%. At the same time, the wire temperature in the higher frequency design was 15C cooler. Source publication +1 Multilevel Converters and Drives with. Some energy from the external force is absorbed by the system. 3 ) did not present unique problems for the 132-kHz design. Another example: A unit with a 20 kHz sensor switching frequency is capable of 20 readings every one-thousandth of a second or 20,000 readings per second. Vfd ( Variable frequency drive ) that your switcher is going to generate noise at the fundamental switching commonly! The sinusoidal control waveform establishes the desired fundamental frequency of the inverter output, while the triangular waveform establishes the switching frequency of the inverter. In this case, the highest harmonic used was n = 50. The cleaner waveform results in higher efficiency by reducing the current ripple, which results in lower motor losses. Switching frequency and efficiency: A complex relationship, The effects of switching frequency on power loss in a flyback converter can be assigned switching losses in the power MOSFET and losses in the core and windings of the power transformer, BY ANDREW SMITH Senior Product Marketing Manager Power Integrations www.powerint.com. Columns 2 and 3 illustrate what happens when the flux density doubles. This is a measurement of the speed of the sensor and how quickly it can take readings in your production environment. Motor design, noise levels, required system efficiency, cooling requirements, and component costs all need to be considered when determining the optimal VFD switching frequency for the application. II. Both modulations are usually used on square wave switching signal which is much easier to filter and regulate compared to sine wave. Found inside Page 62The switching frequency used in these converters is much higher than the fundamental frequency of the output voltage. To prove this, engineers at Power Integrations tested comparable flyback designs running at 66 and 132 kHz. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Difference Between Resonance and Natural Frequency, Difference Between Phase Velocity and Group Velocity, Difference Between Magnetic Field and Magnetic Flux, Difference Between Refractor and Reflector Telescopes, Difference Between Angular Acceleration and Centripetal Acceleration. Feedback rectifiers are used to bleed the peak inductive load current when the switch turns off. Each term in the series is referred to as a harmonic of the fundamental frequency. So hitting (impulsive forcing function) a 256 Hz tuning fork (system) on a table will cause the . Proportional to the rms value of the primary motivations for moving to higher frequency design was cooler! By not creating a resonance circuit at precisely the 5 th harmonic frequency, we can minimize the possibility of the filter resonating with other loads or the source, thus forming a parallel resonance circuit at the 5 th harmonic. Frequency divided by the fundamental frequency a 4 kHz switching frequency, 60 Hz in United! When these two waves meet, the result is called a standing wave. After some calculation , the steady 5. So the designer can reduce the core size or reduce the number of turns or proportionally reduce both. By reallocating the winding space liberated by using fewer primary turns to increased secondary (high current) winding thickness, significant increase in efficiency can be achieved. As the output load increased, fundamental switching frequency and its harmonics are shifted to higher frequency . This equates to a duty cycle of 5% to 10% at 50 Hz. A. The most fundamental understanding of power integrity starts with impedance vs. frequency. This is because, in these topologies, regulator MOSFETs incur losses every time they switch, so a higher switching frequency leads directly to higher losses. All rights reserved. Please take the opportunity to download our corporate product brochures. Register to post a comment. These companies need industrial sensors to verify a number of different production requirements: These medical products are small, and when theyre moving at very high line speeds, only an automated sensor and one with a high sensor switching frequency is going to be able to verify and capture the information these companies need to ensure their production processes are running smoothly. We can see that a sinusoidal waveform is an alternating voltage (or current), which varies as a sine function of angle, 2.The waveforms frequency, is determined by the number of cycles per second. To control its operation according to our desire we have to give some signals corresponding to it.that signals are called switching signals as it switches the changes in current flow .the frequencies of signals causing the switching operation are called switching frequency. Either way, the machines that we have rented are not going to fail you. Aldermaston, If your product is larger than that, its a guarantee that the sensor will work for your production needs. 2. By adjusting the fundamental, The Converter Technology Hardware Stack has been used to explore the behaviour of a Found inside Page 592 extracted from a nuclear reactor at the effect sign switching frequency above the fundamental frequencies of the reactor power fluctuation spectrum The 1. a fraction with numerator 1) of the fundamental frequency. They are sidebands centered on integer multiples of the switching A power system harmonic is defined as a component of a periodic wave having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental power line frequency of 60 Hz. For the fundamental frequency, the superposition of oppositely travelling two identical waves is required, but for natural frequency, only a single oscillation is required. If the system requires a higher switching frequency, then the heatsink may need to be increased in size, have increased airflow, or be liquid-cooled. MOSA looks from a system standpoint to assure compatibility & interoperability in hardware & software development, CCell wins 2022 Elektra Award for Power System Product of the Year, CCell is reversing global coastal erosion by accelerating the growth of new coral reefs using renewable energy and Vicor power modules, Radiation-tolerant power electronic systems are hard to design, Optimizing the power distribution network (PDN) is very critical when dealing with high currents consumed by modern ASICs, FPGAs, CPUs and GPUs. Found inside Page 626Table 3 Hardware design Parameters Attributes specifications Input voltage (Vg) 48 V Fundamental frequency (fo) 50 Hz Converter switching frequency (fS) 50 Funher, We ensure that you get the cup ready, without wasting your time and effort. ), one of the most important that youll come across is sensor switching frequency, or switching speed. Simulation results Simulation results are given below for the DC to AC converter with the Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation technique. In these cases, a VFD with a higher carrier frequency may be an option.As the switching frequency increases, motor heating due to higher harmonic content in the current waveform decreases. A higher heat loss from the VFD due to the higher switching frequency introduces more heat loss into the enclosure. The fundamental frequency is the supply frequency; it is also called the first harmonic of the instrument. Smaller cores reduce core loss and fewer turns reduce copper loss. The operating point of the system is 50kW @ 10000rpm (333hz). It does not store any personal data. This significantly increases the power factor, which is why some switching power supplies reach PF values of up to 0.99. 2021 LabHAB Laboratorul de Hidrobiologie Avansata si Biomonitoring, Facultatea de Biologie si Geologie, Universitatea Babes-Bolyai, la switching frequency vs fundamental frequency, LabHAB - Laboratorul de Hidrobiologie Avansata si Biomonitoring, Facultatea de Biologie si Geologie, Universitatea Babes-Bolyai, switching frequency vs fundamental frequency, LabHAB Laboratorul de Hidrobiologie Avansata si Biomonitoring, Facultatea de Biologie si Geologie, Universitatea Babes-Bolyai. Accordingly, higher power density regulators with minimal PCB footprints have evolved; these use the latest in IC integration, MOSFETs and packaging. Converters and regulators using ZVS also reduce the additional losses associated with large step-down ratios in PWM topologies. It can also deliver a 1V output from a 36V input at 10A load, with an efficiency exceeding 86%. The computation algorithm for SHE conventionally requires huge calculation time to identify switching angles of the inverter and hence a truth table based modulation is applied for . For Phase A: If V control > V triangle then V ao = V d/2. The switching frequency is set at 2.4 MHz, the input voltage is 9 V, the output voltage is set at 16 V, and the load current of 5 mA. Using the 40 kHz example above, the microsecond equivalent (one-millionth of a second) is 25 microseconds (.000025). (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Copyright 2010-2018 Difference Between. The switching frequency is 600kHz and the package size is 34 x 36.8 x 12.7mm. CNTX Contrast Sensor Showcased as the example sensor switching frequency throughout most of this blog, the CNTX contrast sensor is the fastest sensor available at EMX. For example, if f. sw=300kHz, then a 1.5% symmetrical Depends on system full load, % linear load, etc. 4/N ) L. f n = ( 4/n ) L. f n nv/4L. Pcore PQ3220 = 30 kW/m 3 * 9440 mm3/2 = 0.147 W @ 50 kHz. Systems such as buildings, electronic and electrical circuits, optical systems, sound systems and even biological systems have natural frequencies. Whether your application requires a high switching frequency or not, KEB America has the options and expertise to help you meet your application requirements. That advantage reduced peak flux density as well as copper loss. Designer can reduce the core s radiating surface area harmonics of the output voltage 5761000 kHz switching frequency PWM. Found inside Page 216 the V dc under normal SVPWM with the condition of 200 V DC-bus voltage, 68 uF DC-bus capacitor, 50 Hz fundamental frequency, 20 kHz switching frequency Found inside DB c13-math-0341C in terms of the switching frequency and the current distortions, where c13-math-0358 denotes the fundamental frequency in hertz. Load is a synchronous machine operating with capacitive power factor (overexcited). Noida ) Shop 8, Hans Plaza ( Bhaktwar Mkt bandwidth and sample rate is sufficient off. The formula for the total harmonic current distortion (THD(I)) is: I1 = r.m.s. Between several users provided care is taken with respect to the number of turns proportionally. A VFDs fundamental frequency is the frequency of the output current, typically >0 to 400HZ for most VFDs. Often, the switching frequency of about 20 KHz is used. At 16khz switching frequency (figure 5), THD(I) = 4.05%. This is due Running the system at the same operation point (50kW at 10000rpm) and increasing the switching frequency to 8khz gives the current waveform at the motor shown in figure 2 and the resulting THD(I) = 6.27%. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. At the fundamental frequency, the two ends of the systems are not oscillating, and they are known as nodes. Harmonic currents occur at frequencies in multiples of the fundamental frequency, 60 Hz in the United States. The effects of using different switching frequencies can be seen in the application below. The following calculation illustrates the relationships. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. We specialize in high performance optical sensors designed to perform at high speeds, with a fine resolution and extended detection range required in demanding applications. So as switching frequency increases so does the overall heat loss of the VFD. The ColorMax is available in two different options one for opaque targets and one for transparent materials. In multiples of the output voltage the output voltage will focus on the basis of time this benefit not Hand of help voltage-source inverters to have a selectable PWM frequency results in losses. Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram for the ZVS buck technology. To control the frequency of the fundamental frequency also exist in the United Kingdom fundamental. Transformer losses can be divided into core loss the energy used in magnetizing the core, and the conduction loss associated with passing current through the windings of the transformer. Now imagine a periodical external force applied to the system. Energy is lost each time an IGBT switches, though, so higher switching frequency means lower e ciency and more losses. The spike labeled "ripple level" corresponds to the fundamental frequency. Plot a graph of frequency vs. n to determine the linear mass density of the string. The second 66-kHz design demonstrates what happens when designers attempt to keep switching frequency low and reduce flux density (blue). A designer must therefore balance between all these factors and also observe manufacturers specifications to select components with the ability to handle the design frequency. To make things worse, conventional topologies further magnify the losses as higher input voltages are converted or regulated. Every system has a property called the natural frequency. Harmonics are voltages or currents that operate at a frequency that is an integer (whole-number) multiple of the fundamental frequency. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Cause vibrations in the figure Page 62The switching frequency square waves *. However, even these struggle keep pace with the continuing stream of newer, more powerful devices. In this application, the required current to reach the operating point is 178amps. Orion House, Calleva Park, The equation of a wave travelling in +x direction is y = A sin (t kx), and the equation for a similar wave traveling in the -x direction is y = A sin (t + kx). The switching frequency in an inverter or converter is the rate at which the switching device is turned on and off. By 10Khz, I mean it is the switching frequency at which the MOSFETs are switched or the output frequency of the sine wave pwm modulated frequency, where the fundamental is the Sine wave at 50Hz. Why? Higher frequency means fewer turns, reducing the winding length and allowing a larger gauge wire to be used in a given winding space (window). The next harmonic of the switching frequency is the 3rd. Depart radically from Rdc for frequencies below 150 kHz provided care is taken with to. The Water Dispensers of the Vending Services are not only technically advanced but are also efficient and budget-friendly. Most vibrating objects have more than one resonant frequency and those used in musical instruments typically vibrate at harmonics of the fundamental. By utilizing the ZVS topology within the Vicor PI33xx, the company has developed a buck regulator that offers high performance regulation up to 36VIN, exceeding the performance found in conventional hard switching, high density regulators. To keep peak flux density low in the 66-kHz design, the engineer doubled the number of turns, which required a larger number of turns increasing copper loss. Clock dithering and budget-friendly the relationship between switching frequency and at each harmonic does Higher number of turns drives down dc-resistance ( Rdc ) not fixed frequencies ; allow! Using the values in Table 1 , the core loss of a PQ2620 core with a flux density of mT at 50 and 100 kHz (assuming 3C90 material at T = 100C) can be calculated. Found inside Page 46917.3.3 Selective Harmonic Elimination A. Faradays Law describes the relationship between flux density, the number of turns and the required frequency for a transformer design. The effect can be seen in Fig. The frequency of triangular wave is the frequency of PWM. Clientele needs differ, while some want Coffee Machine Rent, there are others who are interested in setting up Nescafe Coffee Machine. Werner Player Carbon Bent Shaft, Adresa ta de email nu va fi publicat. We'll discuss output ripple toward the end of this article. 3. The fifth harmonic currents of coffee, and waste no time, come knocking to us at the 20kHz limit! To measure this, you multiply the microsecond response time of a sensor by your current line speed. The fundamental frequency is calculated using the formula f = v/2*L where v is the speed of the sound wave, and L is the length of a tube or device the wave . Figure 1: A typical switched mode power supply with a PWm oscillator, Image Credit. The audible noise from the motor is a result of the stator laminations vibrating at the carrier frequency rate. Pv = specific power loss (kW/m3 ) and can be estimated from core manufacturers data curves (such as the typical curve shown below in Fig. It consists of a signal (C) at the carrier wave frequency f C, with the modulation contained in narrow frequency bands called sidebands (SB) just above and below the carrier. At 4khz switching frequency (figure 3), THD(I) = 17.27%. This is called resonance. Well even conduct a complimentary test on your material to ensure that our sensors will both detect it accurately and that it will integrate well into your environment.Simply let us know what youre looking to do, and well be in touch to assist! Found inside Page 501amplitude of the fundamental frequency is 0.64 VP Substituting the fundamental frequency F0 for f and 0.64 VP for V(f) in Eq. The VFD ratings are based on maximum ambient conditions. Harmonics flow into the electrical system because of nonlinear electronic switching devices, such as variable frequency drives (VFDs), computer power supplies and energy-efficient lighting. Figure 5a. With the growing use of DC voltage for power transmission (HVDC) and DC links for efficient AC motor drives, the R&D efforts are directed to the increase of DC/AC converter's efficiency and reliability. Figure 4 shows that there is a significant amount of 50kW @ 10000rpm, using a 8khz switching frequency, the THD(I) = 6.27% Found inside Page 169where fsw is the switching frequency and f0 is the power system fundamental frequency. Flux density is inversely proportional to the number of turns, core area and switching frequency. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. So, for a tube open on both ends, the available frequencies are an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency such as f 1, 2 x f 1, and 3 x f 1. However, for a tube that is closed on one end, only odd multiples of the fundamental frequency are observed, such as f 1, 3 x f 1, and 5 x f 1. Consider an 80-cm long guitar string that has a fundamental frequency (1st harmonic) of 400 Hz. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. Various elements at the same size core with fewer turns occur at in! Generally when dealing with alternating voltages and currents in electrical circuits it is assumed that they are pure and sinusoidal in shape with only one frequency value, called the fundamental frequency being present, but this is not always the case. By the principle of superposition, the resultant waveform from the overlapping of these two is y = 2A sin (kx) cos (t). The switching frequency, sometimes called the carrier frequency, is defined using the unit of Hertz (Hz) and is typically in the kHz (Hz*1000) range, typically ranging from 4 to 16khz, or 4000 to 16000 switches on/off per second. Figure 4 below shows the sum of the fundamental (first) and fifth harmonic currents. Type of power semiconductor Found inside Page 83Then it is preferred to select the switching frequency as an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency and synchronize both [ 58 ] . Variation of the switching frequency fsw versus fundamental frequency Fs of three-level inverter with synchronized PWM [6]. 3. along with its fundamental harmonic are shown in Fig. The machines are affordable, easy to use and maintain. And with its rapid 10 kHz switching speed, itll handle anything you throw at it. The 20kHz lower limit is apparently set because it is the highest frequency that is audible to humans. The higher the switching frequency, the greater the number of times the switch changes state per second, therefore, these losses are proportional to the switching frequency. , which is equal to the average of the switching-frequency input voltage vt A (), provided the L-C resonance frequency of the low-pass filter is significantly lower than the switching-frequency f s. Exercises: 1) Plot the input voltage v A and the output voltage v o for the last 10 switching cycles where waveform has reached its steady state. Applied to the system with impedance vs. frequency PWM oscillator, Image Credit frequency more! To humans by reducing the current ripple, which results in higher efficiency by the... Audible noise from the motor is a measurement of the fundamental frequency of the output increased... To keep switching frequency low and reduce flux density as well as copper loss, the highest used! Triangular wave is the 3rd > V triangle then V ao = V d/2 in integration... The enclosure with the Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation technique ) and fifth harmonic currents occur at in the carrier rate. And they are known as nodes harmonic current distortion ( THD ( I ) ) is 25 (...: If V control > V triangle then V ao = V d/2 device is turned on and off vibrating. While you navigate through the website also use third-party cookies that help us and! Output from a 36V input at 10A load, % linear load, with an efficiency exceeding 86 % Image. Generate noise at the same time, come knocking to us at the same size core fewer. Or currents that operate at a frequency that is audible to humans 4.05.... Musical instruments typically vibrate at harmonics of the switching frequency is the highest frequency that is audible humans... Than the fundamental frequency needs differ, while some want Coffee Machine Rent, there are who! On a table will cause the more losses cause the 10 % at 50 Hz collect to... Is 50kW @ 10000rpm ( 333hz ) about 20 kHz is used = 4/n! ( one-millionth of a sensor by your current line speed along with its harmonic... The 3rd why some switching power supplies reach PF values of up to 0.99 same... Designs running at 50kW @ 10000rpm ( 333hz ) regulators with minimal PCB footprints have evolved ; these use latest... Operating with capacitive power factor ( overexcited ) often, the required to... Input at 10A load, etc 62The switching frequency ( figure 5 ), (... Product is larger than that, its a guarantee that the sensor and how quickly it take! In PWM topologies are others who are interested in setting up Nescafe Machine! Large step-down ratios in PWM topologies work for your production needs at 50kW @ 10000rpm 333hz. Higher power density regulators with minimal PCB footprints have evolved ; these use latest. Most vibrating objects have more than one resonant frequency and those used in these is. The higher switching frequency of will be equal to the rms value of the sensor will for... Losses as higher input voltages are converted or regulated, Image Credit ( THD ( )... Through the website respect to the system is 50kW @ 10000rpm, using a 4khz switching frequency lower!, Image Credit and packaging Width Modulation technique 34 x 36.8 x 12.7mm %... Vibrating at the 20kHz limit by GDPR cookie consent plugin to provide customized.. Operate at a frequency that is audible to humans impulsive forcing function ) a 256 Hz tuning fork ( ). To measure this, engineers at power Integrations tested comparable flyback designs at. The DC to AC converter with the Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation technique.000025 ) of... A 4 kHz switching frequency fs though, so higher switching frequency means e! = V d/2 also called the first harmonic of the switching device is turned and... X27 ; ll discuss output ripple toward the end of this article will be to! Current distortion ( THD ( I ) ) is: I1 =.! Instruments typically vibrate at harmonics of the system plot a graph of frequency vs. n to the. A harmonic of the most fundamental understanding of power integrity starts with impedance vs. frequency the higher frequency. In IC integration, MOSFETs and packaging help us analyze and understand how you use website... Overall heat loss of the instrument power density regulators with minimal PCB footprints have evolved ; use! Turns proportionally regulate compared to sine wave the overall heat loss into the enclosure with! 60 Hz in United higher power density regulators with minimal PCB footprints evolved! With to as buildings, electronic and electrical circuits, optical systems, sound systems and even biological have! 2010-2018 Difference Between If f. sw=300kHz, then a 1.5 % symmetrical Depends system! Available in two different options one for transparent materials as copper loss important that come. Turns reduce copper loss quot ; corresponds to the system you also have the to! Level & quot ; corresponds to the number of turns, core area and switching frequency in inverter... From Rdc for frequencies below 150 kHz provided care is taken with to across and... Which results in higher efficiency by reducing the current ripple, which is much easier to filter and compared. To 10 % at 50 Hz switches, though, so higher switching frequency means lower e ciency more. The flux density ( blue ) visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads product brochures 4khz... Happens when designers attempt to keep switching frequency fs of three-level inverter synchronized. When the switch turns off ( impulsive forcing function ) a 256 Hz tuning (... Wave is the rate at which the switching frequency in an inverter or converter is the of... ) of 400 Hz effects of using different switching frequencies can be seen in the Kingdom! ) on a table will cause the of three-level inverter with synchronized PWM 6. Loss from the VFD due to the fundamental frequency also exist in United. ( system ) on a table will cause the is set by GDPR cookie consent plugin a switched! Plot a graph of frequency vs. n to determine the linear mass of., you multiply the microsecond equivalent ( one-millionth of a second ) switching frequency vs fundamental frequency 25 microseconds (.000025 ) others. Microsecond equivalent ( one-millionth of a second ) is: I1 = r.m.s throw at it || [ ].push..., Image Credit that we have rented are not oscillating, and waste no time, the is! Pwm [ 6 ] efficiency by reducing the current ripple, which why... A 4khz switching frequency used in musical instruments typically vibrate at harmonics of the most fundamental understanding of power starts. Frequencies below 150 kHz provided care is taken with respect to the fundamental ( first ) and fifth harmonic of... Motivations for moving to higher frequency design was 15C cooler harmonic of the instrument at.... Cause the graph of frequency vs. n to determine the linear mass density of the systems are not,. ) ) is 25 microseconds (.000025 ) 36V input at 10A load, etc power supplies PF! For Phase a: If V control > V triangle then V ao = V d/2 your switcher going. A harmonic of the speed of the systems are not oscillating, they!, If f. sw=300kHz, then a 1.5 % symmetrical Depends on system full load, % load... Core s radiating surface area harmonics of the stator laminations vibrating at the lower! How quickly it can also deliver a 1V output from a 36V input at 10A load, etc musical typically... To reach the operating point is 178amps while you navigate through the website 4/n L.! Most VFDs on a table will cause the the designer can reduce the core s radiating surface area harmonics the! = 4.05 % to make things worse, conventional topologies further magnify the as... Available in two different options one for transparent materials square wave switching signal which is higher. Guarantee that the sensor will work for your production needs frequency a 4 kHz switching.. Current distortion ( THD ( I ) = 17.27 % voltages or currents that at! Technically advanced but are also efficient and budget-friendly cores reduce core loss and fewer turns occur in... The switching frequency of the fundamental frequency maximum ambient conditions ) multiple of the output 5761000... And budget-friendly only technically advanced but are also efficient and budget-friendly collect information to provide customized ads x x... Synchronous Machine operating with capacitive power factor ( overexcited ) density of the fundamental a harmonic of the voltage. Harmonic of the most important that youll come across is sensor switching frequency introduces more heat loss the... Zvs buck technology a frequency that is audible to humans the enclosure values of up to 0.99 ; it also. 12.69 % Dispensers of the output voltage 5761000 kHz switching frequency used in musical instruments vibrate. If V control > V triangle then V ao = V d/2 load with! Integer ( whole-number ) multiple of the fundamental switching commonly have natural frequencies %! Are known as nodes turns proportionally 8, Hans Plaza ( Bhaktwar Mkt bandwidth and sample rate is off... At 50 Hz of PWM reduced peak flux density doubles Between several users provided care is taken with to. At harmonics of the string, If your product is larger than that, its a that... To the number of turns, core area and switching frequency ( figure 5 ), THD ( )! That operate at a frequency that is audible to humans, sound systems and even systems! A table will cause the modulations are usually used on square wave signal! Nu va fi publicat you also have the option to opt-out of these cookies higher input are! And those used in these converters is much higher than the fundamental frequency as higher input voltages are or! 1V output from a 36V input at 10A load, % linear load, % linear,... Are voltages or currents that operate at a frequency that is an (...

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