Roemer, H.R. This warfare pattern repeated itself under Shah Tahmasp I and Sultan Suleiman I. The Shah had stables in all the principal towns, and Shah Abbas was said to have about 30,000 horses in studs around the country. Expert Answers. [164], As noted before, a key aspect of the Persian character was its love of luxury, particularly on keeping up appearances. He was perhaps the closest advisor to the Shah, and, as such, functioned as his eyes and ears within the Court. It was certainly not homogenousmaybe it was an Azerbaijanian-Ottoman mixed language, as Beltadze (1967:161) states for a translation of the gospels in Georgian script from the 18th century. [31] The establishment of Twelver Shsm as the state religion of Safavid Iran led to various f orders (tariqa) openly declaring their Shte position, and others to promptly assume Sha Islam. Due to his fear of assassination, Shah Abbas either put to death or blinded any member of his family who aroused his suspicion. The works of al-Razi (86592) (known to the West as Razes) were still used in European universities as standard textbooks of alchemy, pharmacology and pediatrics. Also, the camel was a good investment for the merchant, as they cost nearly nothing to feed, carried a lot weight and could travel almost anywhere. This book was translated into French in 1681 by Angulus de Saint, under the name "Pharmacopoea Persica". But in spite of a weak economy, a civil war and foreign wars on two fronts, Tahmsp managed to retain his crown and maintain the territorial integrity of the empire (although much reduced from Ismail's time). The Safavid Empire lasted from 1501-1722. "The Safavid Empire of Persia." From this time the state began to take on a more Persian character. [48] Although Ismil was defeated and his capital was captured, the Safavid empire survived. According to, Amoretti, Biancamaria Scarcia; Matthee, Rudi. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. During the reign of Shah Abbas I, as he tried to upgrade the Silk Road to improve the commercial prosperity of the Empire, an abundance of caravanserais, bridges, bazaars and roads were built, and this strategy was followed by wealthy merchants who also profited from the increase in trade. Browne, "A Literary History of Persia," Vol. . In the war against the Uzbeks he showed that the Safavids had become a gunpowder empire. [104] The following year the loyal Qizilbash forces (the Turkmen and Takkalu who controlled Qazvin), with vizier Mirza Salman and crown prince Sultan Hamza Mirza at their head, confronted the rebelling Ustajlu-Shamlu coalition which had assumed control of Khorasan under the nominal rule of young Abbas. In response, a Ghilzai Afghan chieftain named Mirwais Hotak revolted and killed Gurgin Khan, the Safavid governor of the region, along with his army. She was by no means content to exercise a more or less indirect influence on affairs of state: instead, she openly carried out all essential functions herself, including the appointment of the chief officers of the realm. He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from Bahrain (1602) and, with the English navy, from Hormuz (1622) in the Persian Gulf (a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). The highest level in the government was that of the Prime Minister, or Grand Vizier (Etemad-e Dowlat), who was always chosen from among doctors of law. As one of the powerful "gunpowder empires" of the age, the Safavids re-established Persia's place as a key player in economics and geopolitics at the intersection of the eastern and western worlds. Indeed, one of the greatest legacies of the Safavids is the architecture. The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722 (experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736 and 1750 to 1773) and, at their height, they controlled all of what is now Iran, Republic of Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Armenia, eastern Georgia, parts of the North Caucasus including Russia, Iraq, Kuwait, and Afghanistan, as well as parts of Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. "[194] Lastly, due to the large amount of Georgians, Circassians, and Armenians at the Safavid court (the gholams and in the harem), the Georgian, Circassian and Armenian languages were spoken as well, since these were their mother tongues. She has taught at the high school and university levels in the U.S. and South Korea. 378. Mohammad was selected and received the crown on February 11, 1579. Safavids went on and conquered rest of . Safavid dynasty, (15011736), ruling dynasty of Iran whose establishment of Twelver Shiism as the state religion of Iran was a major factor in the emergence of a unified national consciousness among the various ethnic and linguistic elements of the country. Similarly, within the Safavid empire the harem was seen as an 'internal power structure,' in which women could exert political power. [190] The Chief Physician (Hakim-bashi) was a highly considered member of the Royal court,[192] and the most revered astrologer of the court was given the title Munajjim-bashi (Chief Astrologer). As part of its completion, he greatly expanded the ghulam military corps from just a few hundred during Tahmsp's era, to 15,000 highly trained cavalrymen,[174] as part of a whole army division of 40,000 Caucasian ghulams. [105] The Ustajlu chief, Murshid Quli Khan, immediately acquiesced and received a royal pardon. Although the early afav order was originally Sunni, following the jurisprudence of the Shfi school, it gravitated toward Shiism over time, perhaps pulled along by the popular veneration of Al. One of these empires is the Safavids. But eschewing politics after his defeat in Chaldiran, he left the affairs of the government to the office of the wakl (chief administrator, vakil in Turkish). Abbas I recognized the commercial benefit of promoting the artsartisan products provided much of Iran's foreign trade. Not until the Safavid era did Iran witness the rise of a state similar in importance to the Ottoman empire or the empire of the Egyptian Mamlks. The eastern part of Samtskhe (Meskheti) was irrevocably lost to the Ottomans as well as Mesopotamia. [238] He wrote the Al-Hikma al-mutaaliya fi-l-asfar al-aqliyya al-arbaa ("The Transcendent Philosophy of the Four Journeys of the Intellect"),[239] a meditation on what he called 'meta philosophy' which brought to a synthesis the philosophical mysticism of Sufism, the theology of Shi'a Islam, and the Peripatetic and Illuminationist philosophies of Avicenna and Suhrawardi. During the first 30 years of his long reign, he was able to suppress the internal divisions by exerting control over a strengthened central military force. By the seventeenth century, trade routes between East and West had shifted away from Iran, causing a decline in commerce and trade. Power was shifting to the new class of Caucasian deportees and imports, many of the hundreds of thousands ethnic Georgians, Circassians, and Armenians. $ 3.95. Floor 2001 is a useful, well-sourced survey of the political organization of Safavid society. In the previous century, Russia Muscovy had deposed two western Asian khanates of the Golden Horde and expanded its influence into the Caucasus Mountains and Central Asia. The demise of Tamerlane's political authority created a space in which several religious communities, particularly Shii ones, could come to the fore and gain prominence. The Safavids were members of a Sufi tariqa (path of spiritual journey) founded in the 7th/ 13th century by Shaykh Safi al-Din Ardabili. Tabriz was the center of this industry. [148], The Dutch and English were still able to drain the Iranian government of much of its precious metal supplies. The Safavids ultimately succeeded in establishing a new Persian national monarchy. All other religions, and forms of Islam were suppressed. In 1500, Ismil I invaded neighboring Shirvan to avenge the death of his father, Sheik Haydar, who had been murdered in 1488 by the ruling Shirvanshah, Farrukh Yassar. One of the most renowned Muslim philosophers, Mulla Sadra (1571-1640), lived during Shah Abbas I's reign and wrote the Asfar, a meditation on what he called "meta philosophy," which brought to a synthesis the philosophical mysticism of Sufism, the theology of Shi'ism, and the Peripatetic and Illuminationist philosophies of Avicenna and Suhrawardi Maqtul (1155-1191). With the beginning of the Safavid dynasty in Iran, Albuquerque, a Portuguese general, conquered Hormoz Island in southern Iran. And, just as the higher levels of the social hierarchy was divided between the Turkish "men of the sword" and the Persian "men of the pen"; so were the lower level divided between the Turcoman tribes, who were cattle breeders and lived apart from the surrounding population, and the Persians, who were settled agriculturalists. At the fourth invasion in 1553, it was now clear that Tahmsp followed a policy of annexation and resettlement as he gained control over Tbilisi (Tiflis) and the region of Kartli while physically transplanting more than 30,000 people to the central Iranian heartlands. It was the Safavids who made Iran the spiritual bastion of Shiism, and the repository of Persian cultural traditions and self-awareness of Iranianhood, acting as a bridge to modern Iran. Isfahan Define Anarchy Lawless and disorder; no one leader, no government Define Orthodoxy Traditional (not flexible) manner to follow a religion Define Shah King of the Safavid empire Define warfare in the Safavid Empire .They had a system similar to the janissaries. In Esposito, John L. This system avoided an entrenched aristocracy or a caste society. In 1738, Nadir Shah reconquered Afghanistan starting with the city of Kandahar. Suleiman was eager to negotiate his son's return, but Tahmasp rejected his promises and threats until, in 1561, Suleiman compromised with him. [243], The Safavids by the time of their rise were Azerbaijani-speaking although they also used Persian as a second language. Most were replaced by a ghulam, and within short time, Georgians, Circassians, and to a lesser extent Armenians had been appointed to many of the highest offices of state, and were employed within all other possible sections of society. Although the Uzbeks continued to make occasional raids into Khorasan, the Safavid empire was able to keep them at bay throughout its reign. The fourth vakil was murdered by the Qizilbash, and the fifth was put to death by them. Af first, Kopek Sultn's Ustajlu tribe suffered the heaviest, and he himself was killed in a battle. The leadership of the order passed from Sadr ud-Dn Ms to his son Khwdja Ali ( 1429) and in turn to his son Ibrhm ( 142947). During his reign, the official language at the royal court was Azerbaijanian. And since the Safavid society was meritocratic, and successions seldom were made on the basis of heritage, this meant that government offices constantly felt the pressure of being under surveillance and had to make sure they governed in the best interest of their leader, and not merely their own. Afterwards, Ismail went on a conquest campaign, capturing Tabriz in July 1501, where he enthroned himself the Shh of Azerbaijan,[51][52][53] proclaimed himself King of Kings (shahanshah) of Iran[54][55][56] and minted coins in his name, proclaiming Twelver Shsm as the official religion of his domain. Savory, II, p. 1116. There had been, however, Shi'a communities in some cities like Qom and Sabzevar as early as eighth century. Even though the Safavids were not the first Shii rulers in Iran, they played a crucial role in making Shia Islam the official religion in the whole of Iran, as well as what is nowadays the Republic of Azerbaijan. There are many reasons as to why the empire was as successful as it was, but some of them include its very strong and organized military and its centralized political structure. [194] As Prof. David Blow states, foremost among the courtiers were the old nobility of Turkoman Qizilbash lords and their sons. Dr. Kallie Szczepanski is a history teacher specializing in Asian history and culture. [83] Their formation, implementation, and usage was very much alike to the janissaries of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire. Ismail I continued to expand his base in northwestern Iran. Indeed, this had been the situation throughout Persian history, even before the Safavids, ever since the Arab conquest. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license) The Rise of the Safavid Empire His oldest son, the crown prince Mohammad Baqer Mirza, was executed following a court intrigue in which several Circassians were involved, while two others were blinded. Blow; chapter: "English adventurers at the servise of Shah Abbas.". According to author Moojan Momen, "up to the middle of the 19th century there were very few mujtahids (three or four) anywhere at any one time," but "several hundred existed by the end of the 19th century. It was also requested from them that they appoint a lawyer (vakil) to the Court who would inform them on matters pertaining to the provincial affairs. Clothes that became soiled in any way were changed immediately. Source for information on Portuguese Empire: Gale Encyclopedia of World History: Governments dictionary. Trade with the West and industry expanded, communications improved. When Abbas had a lively conversation in Turkish with the Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle, in front of his courtiers, he had to translate the conversation afterwards into Persian for the benefit of most of those present. [31], b Official language,[10] coinage,[11][12] civil administration,[13] court (since Isfahan became capital),[14] literary,[11][13][15] theological discourse,[11] diplomatic correspondence, historiography,[16] court-based religious posts. [175] Thus, starting from the reign of Tahmsp I but only fully implemented and completed by Shah Abbas, this new group solely composed of ethnic Caucasians eventually came to constitute a powerful "third force" within the state as a new layer in society, alongside the Persians and the Qizilbash Turks, and it only goes to prove the meritocratic society of the Safavids. Efahn fell to the Ghilzai Afghans of Kandahr in 1722. With the capture of Tabriz, the Safavid dynasty officially began. Although Shh Ni'matullh was apparently a Sunn Muslim, the Ni'matullh order soon declared its adherence to Sha Islam after the rise of the Safavid dynasty. But the reverse seems not to have been true. "Shahsevan in Safavid Persia". [139], More came of Abbas's contacts with the English, although England had little interest in fighting against the Ottomans. Chardin specifically noticed the rank of doctors and astrologers and the respect that the Shahs had for them. [50] As such, he was the last in the line of hereditary Grand Masters of the Safaviyeh order, prior to its ascent to a ruling dynasty. A year after his victory in Tabriz, Ismil I claimed most of Iran as part of his territory,[31] and within 10 years established a complete control over all of it. A very strenuous form of exercise which the Persians greatly enjoyed was hunting. Ismil's decisive victory over the Uzbeks, who had occupied most of Khorasan, ensured Iran's eastern borders, and the Uzbeks never since expanded beyond the Hindukush. [76] Under the Peace, the Ottomans agreed to restore Yerevan, Karabakh and Nakhjuwan to the Safavids and in turn would retain Mesopotamia (Iraq) and eastern Anatolia. Capital of the Safavid Empire. Their hairstyle was simple, the hair gathered back in tresses, often adorned at the ends with pearls and clusters of jewels. The Safavid Empire was a theocracy. In the meantime, the navy-less Safavids lost the island of Hormuz to the Portuguese in 1507. Thus Abbas was able to break dependence on the Qizilbash for military might indefinitely, and therefore was able to fully centralize control for the first time since the foundation of the Safavid state. Was Safavid Iran an Empire. Blow, David; Shah Abbas: The ruthless king who became an Iranian legend, pp. Among these were a number of Sufi brotherhoods, the Hurufis, Nuqtavis and Musha'sha'iyyah. Distinctive monuments like the Sheikh Lotfallah (1618), Hasht Behesht (Eight Paradise Palace) (1469) and the Chahar Bagh School (1714) appeared in Isfahan and other cities. The Shirley brothers arrived in 1598 and helped reorganize the Iranian army, which proved to be crucial in the OttomanSafavid War (160318), which resulted in Ottoman defeats in all stages of the war and the first clear pitched Safavid victory of their archrivals. After subsequent campaigns, the Safavids recaptured Baghdad, in 1623, but lost it again to Murad IV in 1638. Turkic) origins. In 1613, Abbas had appointed these trusted Georgian gholams of his on the puppet thrones of Kartli and Kakheti, the Iranian Safavid ruled areas of Georgia. According to Encyclopdia Iranica, his father and founder of the Empire, Ismail I, had begun this process on a bureaucratic level as he appointed a number of prominent Persians in powerful bureaucratic positions, and one can see this continued in Tahmsps lengthy and close relationship with the chief vizier, Qi Jahn of Qazvin, after 1535. [194] Under Abbas, the eunuchs became an increasingly important element at the court. Thirdly there was horsemanship. In May 1501, Ismail I declared Tabriz his capital and himself Shah of Azerbaijan. [223] The Persians were also active in the Aceh Sultanate, the Brunei Sultanate, the Demak Sultanate, and Dai Viet. signed peace treaty, capital moved from Tabriz to Isfahan, highest point in Safavid empire, established similar system to janissaries, the army, attempted to regain lost territories Rise of empire- Nadir Shah Afshar restored order, military adventurer, launched series of campaigns that restored the country's borders Bureaucracy was by what? It was perhaps to perpetuate the distinction of Persian from Arabic culture that attracted the Iranians towards Shi'a Islamthe heartland and sacred sites of Sunni Islam would always be in the Arabian peninsula. At its height, it encompassed the areas of modern-day Iran, Egypt, Turkey, and parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan. Located in the central Middle East, the kingdom occupied a fundamental geographic location and had substantial effect in the stability of the region. [147] In the late seventeenth century, Iranian merchants established a permanent presence as far north as Narva on the Baltic sea, in what now is Estonia. The vizier thought that the royal forces failed to prosecute the siege sufficiently and accused the forces of sedition. The dynasty began as a Sufi order but evolved into a major gunpowder empire. From 1553 for forty years the shah was able to avoid being ensnared in tribal treacheries. "Greeks and Trkmens: The Pontic Exception", Peter Charanis. The Canon of Medicine by Avicenna (c. 9801037) was still regarded as one of the primary textbooks in medicine throughout most of the civilized world. The tribal rivalries among the Qizilbash, which temporarily ceased before the defeat at Chaldiran, resurfaced in intense form immediately after the death of Ismil, and led to ten years of civil war (930040/15241533) until Shh Tahmsp regained control of the affairs of the state. During his reign he had realized while both looking to his own empire and that of the neighboring Ottomans, that there were dangerous rivalling factions and internal family rivalries that were a threat to the heads of state. People met there to drink liqueurs or coffee, to smoke tobacco or opium, and to chat or listen to poetry. [133] Abbas's attitude, however, was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller Anthony Jenkinson from his court on hearing he was a Christian. [83] Despite that Tahmsp could nullify and neglect some of his consternations regarding potential issues related to his family by having his close direct male relatives such as his brothers and sons routinely transferred around to various governorships in the empire, he understood and realized that any long-term solutions would mainly involve minimizing the political and military presence of the Qezelb as a whole. [65] The Chaldiran battle also holds historical significance as the start of over 300 years of frequent and harsh warfare fueled by geo-politics and ideological differences between the Ottomans and the Iranian Safavids (as well as successive Iranian states) mainly regarding territories in Eastern Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Mesopotamia. While the initial attacks were repelled, the Ottomans continued and grabbed considerable territory in Transcaucasia, Dagestan, Kurdistan and Lorestan and in 993/1585 they even took Tabriz.[103]. [153][154] In the OttomanIranian War (173035), he retook all territories lost by the Ottoman invasion of the 1720s, as well as beyond. Shah Abbas II was known as a poet, writing Turkic verse with the pen name of Tani. Georgian, Circassian and Armenian were also spoken, since these were the mother-tongues of many of the ghulams, as well as of a high proportion of the women of the harem. They finally arrived at the court of Philip III of Spain in 1602. This would not change with the Arab conquest of Iran, and it was primarily the Persians that took upon them the works of philosophy, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, music and alchemy. The tribal Afghans rode roughshod over their conquered territory for seven years but were prevented from making further gains by Nader Shah, a former slave who had risen to military leadership within the Afshar tribe in Khorasan, a vassal state of the Safavids. His native language was Old Tati (zar), an extinct Iranian dialect of the north closely related to Persian. However, Shah Abbas was fearful to the point of paranoia about the assassination and executed or blinded all of his sons to prevent them from replacing him. ThoughtCo. The revenue came not so much from exports, as from the custom charges and transit dues levied on goods passing through the country. The greatest of the Safavid monarchs, Shah Abbas (15871629) came to power in 1587, at the age of 16, following the forced abdication of his father, Shah Muhammad Khudbanda. Sons of nobles were considered for the succession of their fathers as a mark of respect, but they had to prove themselves worthy of the position. They cleverly allied themselves with European powers in order to protect themselves from the Ottomans. It was from this time that the division of the Shia world into mujtahid (those who could follow their own independent judgment) and muqallid (those who had to follow the rulings of a mujtahid) took place. Shah Abbas: the ruthless king who became an Iranian legend, p. 165. "[93] His conduct might also be explained by his drug use. He did so by taking the humiliating step of coming to peace terms with the Ottomans by making, for now, permanent their territorial gains in Iraq and the territories in the north, including Azerbaijan, Qarabagh, Ganja, eastern Georgia (comprising the Kingdom of Kartli and Kakheti), Dagestan, and Kurdistan. In the year 1500, Esma'il the thirteen-year-old son of a killed Safavid leader, Sheikh Heydar, set out to conquer territories and avenge death of his father. However, strategically it remained inconclusive. A new age in Iranian architecture began with the rise of the Safavid dynasty. From 1609-1610, war broke out between Kurdish tribes and Safavid Empire. Immediately after Nadir Shah's assassination in 1747, the Safavids were re-appointed as shahs of Iran in order to lend legitimacy to the nascent Zand dynasty. While the imams and judges of law applied civil law in their practice, urf was primarily exercised by the local commissioners, who inspected the villages on behalf of the Shah, and by the Minister of Justice (Divanbegi). This layer would be solely composed of hundreds of thousands of deported, imported, and to a lesser extent voluntarily migrated ethnic Circassians, Georgians, and Armenians. His painting and calligraphic style influenced Iranian artists for much of the Safavid period, which came to be known as the Isfahan school. "The Safavid Period" in Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Consequently, they were slowly able to take on administrative jobs in areas which had hitherto been the exclusive preserve of the ethnic Persians.[168]. 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